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Table 4 Assessment of herbicidal AIs sold in Austria from 2010 to 2019 in terms of acute toxicity for honeybees and earthworms (n = 80) and available chronic toxicity for earthworms (n = 50) and birds (n = 61)

From: Reducing overall herbicide use may reduce risks to humans but increase toxic loads to honeybees, earthworms and birds

Species

Number of AI in toxicity category

Highly toxic

Moderately toxic

Non-toxic

No. AIs

%

No. AIs

%

No. AIs

%

Honeybee LD50 oral [µg bee−1] (n = 80)

0

0.0

46

57.5

34

42.5

Honeybee LD50 contact [µg bee−1] (n = 80)

1

1.25

55

68.8

24

30.0

Earthworm LC50 [mg kgsoil−1] (n = 80)

0

0.0

72

90.0

8

10.0

Bird LD50 [mg kgbw−1] (n = 80)

2

2.5

58

72.5

20

25.0

Earthworm NOEC [mg kgsoil−1] (n = 50)

1

2.0

45

90.0

4

8.00

Bird NOEL [mg kgbw−1 d−1] (n = 61)

4

6.6

54

88.5

3

4.9