Traversed dynamics of climate change and One Health

Abstract

Climate change, caused by both natural and human activities, poses significant threats to global health, including rising temperatures, extreme weather events, and environmental disruptions. The One Health concept, emphasizing the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health, is crucial in addressing these challenges. Climate change is linked to the emergence and resurgence of infectious diseases, resulting in substantial economic losses worldwide due to outbreaks, floods, and disrupted trade, among other factors. Therefore, it is crucial to adapt to this changing climate to safeguard One Health. By implementing a One Health approach, we can effectively address the consequences of climate change and make substantial contributions to health and food safety. This approach also holds the potential to mitigate economic losses, particularly in low and middle-income countries. Additionally, in the future, research interventions based on the One Health framework may offer sustainable solutions to combat climate change.

Introduction

Climate change refers to long-term shifts in climate, humidity, winds, and other weather patterns resulting from natural and human factors that modify atmospheric conditions [1]. As the biggest hazards to humankind in the twenty-first century, climate change and global warming are threatening all facets of existence, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). Global warming is just a single aspect of the larger problem of climate change, despite the fact that both phrases are frequently used synonymously [2].

The consensus among many scientists is that most global changes are caused by increasing levels of carbon dioxide (CO₂), pollutants generated by human activities and other greenhouse gases (GHGs) [3]. Human health and lives are being impacted by the environmental effects of climate change, which include rising sea levels, rising temperatures, more extreme weather events, an increase in droughts, flooding, and wildfires [4].

Global transformation processes are not limited to local pollution but can lead to widespread disruption and exhaustion. To effectively mitigate and respond to these changes, it is crucial to comprehend simulation models, their complexity, and their future implications, as well as to develop coordinated national policies across critical sectors [5].

The Lancet Countdown on Health and Climate Change identifies the increasing consequences of infectious diseases as the foremost global health threat, accompanied by the adverse impacts of heat on work performance and health, as well as declining food quality and safety indices [6]. The effects of climate change on human health are multifaceted and dependent on various factors, such as demographic and socioeconomic changes, vulnerability assessment, and the availability of adaptation strategies within public health systems [1].

Considering the United Nations’ projections that the global population will reach 9.8 billion by 2050, it is essential to revisit the question of how we can achieve specific climate goals and promote better health without reducing the actual number of individuals contributing to environmental pressures. Low birth rates lead to an increase aging population and the elderly population is expected to have a significant impact on society, highlighting the financial and political strains that many nations’ health care, pension, and social security systems will likely experience in the next few years [7].

The term “one health” describes the greater significance of saved human and animal lives, lower costs, and continued provision of social and environmental services that result from improved collaboration across the fields of animal and human health and other fields [8]. The concept of One Health emphasizes the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental well-being [9].

The primary focus of the One Health concept is to study the impact, responses, and actions related to the interconnectedness of humans and animals, particularly in the context of emerging and pervasive zoonotic diseases. These diseases bear a significant burden on developing countries and have substantial social implications, especially in resource-limited settings [10].

In this article, we aim to provide valuable insights into the intersection of One Health and climate change, contributing to a better understanding of the issue and the development of sustainable solutions.

Climate change

By the turn of the nineteenth century, it became evident that changes in the concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere could have an impact on weather patterns [11]. Since the onset of urbanization, particularly in the mid-twentieth century, human activities have significantly increased the levels of GHGs, including CO₂, N₂O, methane, and fluorinated gases, while also reducing the atmosphere's reflectivity [12]. Climate encompasses long-term weather patterns, including temperature, humidity, and storm activity. The excessive accumulation of greenhouse gas emissions on a global scale is the underlying cause of human-induced climate change.

40% of the terrestrial environment is currently occupied by the agricultural sector, and this percentage is projected to rise, affecting the fixation of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus. Loss of biodiversity might result from this, especially with regard to microbes. Methane (CH₄), which is linked to fossil fuels, is produced by methanogenic bacteria that are employed in agriculture [13]. Natural processes control the amount of CH₄ in the atmosphere, but microbial populations in soil, water, and land oxidize it. The rise in CH₄ between 2014 and 2017 is a sign of accelerating climate change and global warming [14].

15% of all emissions come from the agricultural sector, mostly from CH₄ and N₂O. If consumption patterns do not change, non-agricultural greenhouse gas emissions are expected to increase until 2055. However, it is anticipated that emissions would increase even more quickly due to shifting consumer preferences for costly goods like milk and meat [15]. Emissions can be decreased by reducing meat consumption, mitigating the effects of technology, or both. About 8–10% of emissions come from the cattle industry, while lifecycle study shows that this percentage might reach up to 18% [16].

A major contribution to the emissions from rice pads is rice consumption, which accounts for 20% of the emissions [17]. Additionally, compared to plants that generate food, non-ruminant animal flesh produces around three to ten times as much CH₄. Unsustainable agriculture uses a lot of fertilizers, alters the biogeochemical cycles of carbon, nitrogen, and other critical components, and burns fossil fuels, which also exacerbates human-induced climate change [18].

When it was discovered that man-made gases, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), may be up to ten thousand times stronger than CO₂, the greenhouse effect—which was essentially an issue of addressing climate dynamics—was drastically altered. Some of the strongest super-greenhouse gases are these synthetic gases, which are utilized in medicine delivery pumps and refrigerants [19]. Molina and Rowland’s CFC11 and CFC12 would accumulate in the atmosphere because of their extended half-lives. When CFCs are photodissociated by UV light, ozone in the stratosphere is destroyed, creating an ozone hole [20] (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1

Climate change contributing factor

Climate change has significant implications for people's access to food, with rising sea levels posing challenges to agriculture and increasing temperatures leading to land degradation and agricultural failures (US Natl. Res. Counc. 2016). Earth’s temperature has naturally varied throughout history; the current changes are occurring at an unprecedented rate, potentially exceeding the capacity of ecosystems to adapt, resulting in profoundly detrimental trends in temperature and habitats [11].

Apart from temperature fluctuations, rising sea levels, eutrophication, and changes in various climate-related aspects like species extinction, disruption of nutrient cycles, and the widespread use of harmful substances and materials that impact ecosystems and human services collectively contribute to overall environmental change [21].

By 2017, the global average temperature had already increased by 1 °C from pre-industrial levels. Limiting global warming to below 2 °C is challenging, and even more so to achieve the target of 1.5 °C, which is considered the upper limit to prevent significant damage to the economy, public health, well-being, and the Earth’s biosphere. The spread of nutritional deficiencies, ocean-related illnesses, and vector-borne diseases is expected to intensify [22].

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), achieving temperature increases of 1.5 °C or lower with limited or no overshoot would require rapid and profound transformations across energy, land, urban infrastructure (including transportation and housing), and industrial systems (high confidence) [23]. While these system changes may not occur overnight, their scale and urgency make them distinct from previous efforts.

The magnitude of these differences is so significant that some propose labeling the current geological period as anthropogenic, as the impacts are likely to be visible in the Earth's geological record for millions of years to come. Anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions have already caused a 1 °C increase in the average global temperature compared to pre-industrial levels [12].

Climate change manifests itself in various ways, impacting multiple climatic parameters such as temperature, precipitation (including amount, timing, and frequency), humidity, wind (including velocity and timing), and gaseous concentrations. Analyzing these parameters not only helps us understand the consequences of climate change, but also serves as an indicator of its occurrence. The intricate interplay of these climate factors directly affects agriculture, leading to inevitable and significant repercussions [24].

In agriculture, climate change can disrupt essential plant physiological processes, including photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration, nutrient uptake, mineral balance, and ionic exchange. Additionally, climate change can alter the population and behavior of pests and pathogens, further jeopardizing crop productivity [25].

Previous studies have extensively examined the connections between human well-being and the changes induced by climate change. Research has consistently found direct consequences of climate change, particularly in relation to rising temperatures and their association with various health risks [26]. Furthermore, the IPCC estimates that approximately 200 million people will be at risk of multiple health issues due to factors such as displacement, intrusion of ocean water into freshwater sources, disruptions in storm water drainage, and sewage disposal, primarily attributed to mid-range sea-level rise projections (a 40-cm rise by the 2080s) [27].

As temperatures rise, ozone concentrations are expected to change. These temperature changes will have an impact on ozone, which is known to intensify lung-related conditions like bronchitis, respiratory failure, breathing problems, and premature death. Rise in temperature is directly related to the emergence and re-emergence of vector-borne diseases. For instance, rising temperature facilitates mosquitoes to breed and survive in the associated, which ultimately helps the mosquito to transmit the infectious agents to the healthy population, e.g., malaria and dengue virus [28].

Changes in agricultural output, supply volatility, and price effects will impact food security, including nutrition-related concerns (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2

Impact of climate change on One Health perspective

The impacts of climate change are diverse and can be observed across various ecosystems. In marine ecosystems, for example, climate change can lead to increased heat transfer rates, changes in ocean levels, reduced nutrient availability, pH changes, and glacial loss. These changes can affect the timing of spring phytoplankton blooms, which in turn can impact the entire food chain, from krill to fish to marine mammals and birds [29].

On land, variations in rainfall such as acid rain and concentration of rain can have significant ecological consequences. Temperate deserts, savannahs, and grasslands are expected to respond in different ways to these changes. Coastal habitats, such as scrublands, are particularly vulnerable, as drought and rising temperatures can promote the expansion of deserts and grasslands [30]. The shift in latitudinal distribution of low-growing plants in tundra ecosystems can have cascading effects on the overall ecosystem, as they provide habitat for other animal species. Mountain-dwelling species are also at high risk due to limited opportunities for uphill migration, making them particularly susceptible to habitat changes caused by climate change [31].

Natural disasters have significant health consequences, encompassing a range of immediate physical harm, morbidity, and mortality, as well as potential long-term mental health impacts. For instance, flooding can result in the release of toxic chemicals from storage, or the remobilization of substances already present in the environment, including pesticides. Droughts, on the other hand, can lead to various health implications, particularly in relation to nutrition, communicable diseases, and the occurrence of forest fires, which contribute to air pollution, especially in low-income regions [32].

Climate change can directly or indirectly affect the welfare of livestock, and these impacts are often attributed to changes in environmental factors such as temperature, moisture, dew point, as well as the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events like heatwaves, heavy rainfall, severe droughts, and coastal flooding [3]. The potential impact of climate change on the spread and outbreaks of zoonotic diseases is a major concern. Many zoonosis are sensitive to weather conditions, and the effects of global warming, particularly on winter conditions, are significant in northern high latitude regions. Zoonotic diseases prevalent in these areas, such as rabies, tularemia, Lyme borreliosis, and orthohantavirus infections, are believed to be influenced by weather patterns [33]. The complex relationship between climate change, weather patterns, and zoonotic diseases underscores the importance of understanding and addressing these factors in order to mitigate their impact on human and animal health.

One Health

Universal healthcare is not a recent concept and can be traced back at least two centuries. The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the One Health Commission define One Health as an integrated, multidisciplinary approach that recognizes the interconnectedness between people, animals, plants, and the shared environment at various levels, including local, regional, national, and global [34].

The proximity of humans, animals, and the environment is emphasized by the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2. The virus’s closest relatives occur in animals, yet the causes of spillover remain undiscovered. This emphasizes how important a One Health strategy is. To improve cross-sector collaboration and advance One Health concepts into policies and actions, four global partners—the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and the World Health Organization (WHO)—established the interdisciplinary One Health High-Level Expert Panel (OHHLEP) in May 2021 (https://www.who.int/groups/one-health-high-level-expert-panel).

The goal of one health is to optimize and sustainably balance the health of humans, animals, and ecosystems through an integrated strategy. It acknowledges the interdependence and tight relationship between human health, that of domestic and wild animals, plants, and the larger environment, including ecosystems (Fig. 3) [35].

Fig. 3

One Health approach

The One Health strategy recognizes the interconnections between the ecosystem, veterinary medicine, and public health. Various health concerns, such as changes in microbe and vector demographics affecting epidemiology, food accessibility and safety, degradation of water quality standards, and alterations in the health of different species of mammals and plants, are all interconnected and pose risks to both humans and animals.

The current risk environment is characterized by uncertainty, interconnectedness, and integration, influenced by factors such as global epidemiology, pathogen adaptation, changing demographics, evolving animal production systems, food insecurity, and climate change [36]. Antibiotic resistance (AMR) is another critical aspect of One Health, as resistance can emerge in humans, animals, or the environment, necessitating a holistic approach to address this global challenge [10]. It is documented through a systemic analysis of One Health Network (OHN) in the past, that environment is a neglected sector among various one health domains. Importance of guaranteeing the unbiased inclusion of all domains of the triad according to the definition of One Health to affirm the reinvestment by clear compliance and assessment of obvious One Health goals, outcomes and effects which facilitates in direction orientation, holistic collaboration of all OHNs across the globe.

One Health refers to the value added by cooperation between human and animal health and other disciplines, resulting in saved lives, reduced costs, and sustained social and environmental services (Table 1). Joint vaccination services for mobile pastoralists provide access to healthcare, save resources, and share cold chain and transport costs. For example, mass vaccination of livestock for brucellosis control in Mongolia could be justified by the social benefits three times higher than the intervention cost, demonstrating the potential of One Health in zoonosis control [6].

Table 1 Examples of added values of one health

In the past decade, there has been an emergence and spread of several infectious diseases, including Hantavirus, H1N1 influenza, Ebola, Avian Influenza (H5N1), West Nile virus, Dengue and Chikungunya viruses, severe acute respiratory syndrome, Marburg, E. coli O157:H7, and Yersinia pestis (anthrax). Vector-borne diseases, which are a subset of zoonotic diseases, are particularly susceptible to changes in the environment and exhibit complex epidemiology, allowing them to thrive in a dynamic world [37].

Emerging and re-emerging zoonotic infectious diseases present a significant threat to global health security. It is imperative to place a stronger emphasis on the One Health concept to advance global health security Table 3, [38]. The rise in global temperatures has facilitated the proliferation of certain vectors, particularly in less developed countries. Additionally, increasing precipitation and associated flooding in certain areas create favorable conditions for vector breeding. Flooding events also increase the risk of spreading waterborne diseases [39].

Climate change-induced temperature shifts in various geographical regions have led to an increased prevalence of infections in areas that were previously free from these diseases. Additionally, if overall human health deteriorates due to climate change, zoonotic infections like dengue and Zika viruses, which already pose a global threat, may spread more easily [40].

One Health has successfully mitigated zoonotic infections, such as rabies in Sri Lanka, Bhutan, and Bangladesh. Methods include surveillance, outbreak investigation, laboratory testing, mass dog vaccination, human vaccinations, and dog population management. Professional training and cross-sectorial collaboration have also been reinforced. In Bhutan, confirmed rabies cases decreased from 17 to 17, Bangladesh saw a decrease in human fatalities from 1500 to 200, and Sri Lanka saw less than 50 deaths in 2012 [41].

Arab nations are now far more prepared against MERS-CoV thanks to the One Health concept. Policies and strategic plans were prepared in 2015 by a workgroup in Qatar that included members from the OIE, WHO, and Middle Eastern and Arab nations [42]. No MERS-CoV cases had been reported to the WHO or by international health agencies as of June 7, 2023. A multimodal strategy involving One Health, enhanced monitoring, enhanced fast response capabilities, and enhanced international communication among public health authorities is required to avert future pandemics and zoonosis, encouraging solidarity, collaboration, and openness [43].

Food safety

As the global population continues to grow, ensuring food security and proper nutrition becomes a significant challenge. The need to preserve food resources, improve agricultural practices, and address food distribution inequalities are crucial for promoting adequate nutrition for all. Inadequate access to nutritious food can lead to malnutrition, stunting, and a range of health issues [27].

Climate change encompasses more than just the rise in average global temperature. It also leads to a range of other consequences such as extreme weather events and natural disasters, including floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes, and others. Additionally, it results in longer periods of dry spells, an increased frequency of heavy precipitation events, water acidity, and potentially rising sea levels [44]. These various manifestations of climate change can significantly impact animals, fishery, and agricultural productivity.

On a global scale, food production is intricately connected to these sectors and can be directly or indirectly affected by climate change. Increased temperatures will have significant detrimental effects on crop growth, making global temperature-shifting patterns very prone to impact global food productivity (Fig. 4) [45].

Fig. 4

The linkage between climate change and food security

The FAO highlights that climate change can influence environmental pathogen survival and growth, as well as sources and modes of transmission, ultimately affecting the food web and human health. While the impact of climate change on primary food production and food security is widely recognized, its implications for food safety have received less attention.

Anthropogenic global warming not only has an immediate impact on crop output, but also affects food prices, distribution network dynamics, and markets. For instance, variations in rainfall patterns or shifts in temperatures can alter the duration of the growing season, thereby influencing food production [46].

The significance of climate change for food security varies across different regions. In southern Africa, for example, the climate is a commonly cited factor contributing to food insecurity, both as a long-term issue and as a sudden shock. However, the ability to cope with these challenges and mitigate long-term pressures may be limited in this region due to a lack of access to suitable coping strategies.

Conversely, in other areas like the Indo-Gangetic Plain of India, factors such as employment issues and the availability and quality of groundwater for irrigation may have a greater influence on food security than the direct impacts of climate change [46]. It is important to recognize the varying drivers and contexts that shape food security outcomes in different regions, considering both the immediate effects of climate change and other contributing factors.

Food security and climate change are complex issues that need for coordinated approaches to health [47]. Droughts that impact cattle as well as people can have disastrous effects on milk-based food systems in Ethiopian Somali Regional State, Chad, and North Mali [48]. Small-scale livestock disruptions have an impact on the accessibility and availability of foods derived from animals, which reduces the chance of malnutrition and increases the chance of a varied and nutrient-rich diet. For the purpose of identifying hunger crises early on, observations of livestock and food prices are essential. Performance, growth, and yield are all decreased by heat stress, yet vegetative seasons are extended in temperate zones due to climate change [6].

Climate change is widely recognized as having negative impacts on various aspects of our environment, including people, plants, animals, and ecosystems. One concerning consequence is the potential increase in the incidence and severity of foodborne illnesses. The Fourth Report of the United Nations IPCC highlights that rising temperatures, elevated CO₂ levels, altered rainfall patterns, and extreme weather events pose significant risks to food safety [49].

The Fifth Assessment Report of the IPCC indicates that, even under more optimistic projections, some regions in Africa could experience a decline in food crop yields by 10% to 20%. This decline would have significant implications for populations and regions that are already vulnerable [50]. Furthermore, between 2010 and 2050, the combined effects of climate change, population growth, and economic expansion are projected to lead to substantial price increases for staple foods. Maize prices could rise by 42% to 131%, rice prices by 11% to 78%, and wheat prices by 17% to 67% [50].

The stability of agricultural output is already under threat from newly developing pest and disease outbreaks, localized weather shocks, and yield decreases and price rises. This emphasizes the urgent need for swift and adaptable management responses to safeguard food production [50, 51].

Climate change poses a potential increase in the threat of zoonotic foodborne illnesses, both directly and indirectly. Livestock animals are more susceptible to microbial infections due to the impact of climate change on their living conditions, making them important reservoirs for diseases. Furthermore, the proliferation of animal pests can act as vectors for zoonotic diseases. Changes in atmospheric conditions, sea temperatures, weather events, ocean acidification, and salinity levels all have implications for the health of seafood, affecting the survival and transmission capacity of human infections present in marine environments and seafood. These various pathways of foodborne illnesses are influenced by climate change, thereby compromising the quality and safety of multiple food items [49].

Food security is a complex and multifaceted issue that cannot be easily defined or confined to specific geographical or demographic parameters such as education, demography, geographic location, or income. Even though there is enough food to feed everyone on the planet, approximately one billion people (16% of the global population) still suffer from chronic poverty [52]. This emphasizes how difficult it will be to guarantee that agricultural output will be sufficient to combat the rising problem of undernourishment brought on by the combination of waste and a constantly growing population.

Projections indicate that global food production must increase by 70% by 2050 to meet the demands placed on existing limited resources [53]. Extreme weather events and other global ecological changes have increased concerns about guaranteeing food security, especially for underprivileged populations. These include fluctuations in the amount of water available, the amount of forest cover, and the availability and cycling of nutrients such as ammonia. Human activity has a significant impact on these ecological changes [46], which emphasizes how urgent and difficult it is to solve issues related to food security.

Economic impacts of climate change

Climate change is a serious hazard to the globe, generating temperature anomalies owing to both natural and human reasons. The increase in natural catastrophes exacerbates the issue, affecting the environment, agriculture, economy, and society. The increase in greenhouse gases will result in GDP losses by the end of the twenty-first century, putting strain on natural resources. The worldwide danger has severe consequences of starvation, food shortages, poor health, and lower labor productivity [54, 55].

Natural and environmental disasters are extremely diverse, resulting in an average of 60,000 deaths worldwide per year during the past few decades [56]. Natural calamities account for around 0.1% of all global mortality. The number of fatalities might be small, perhaps fewer than 10,000 and as low as 0.01% of total deaths. However, shock events such as the 1983–1985 famine in Ethiopia, the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, Cyclone Nargis in Myanmar, the 2010 Port-au-Prince earthquake in Haiti, and the COVID-19 pandemic have had a devastating impact, pushing global disaster deaths to over 200,000, or more than 0.4% of deaths in these years [57]. Historical evidence suggests that earlier catastrophe detection, stronger infrastructure, emergency planning, and response programs have significantly decreased disaster mortality globally. Improving living conditions, infrastructure, and emergency services in low-income communities is crucial to lowering natural disaster mortality in the future decades [58].

Global food insecurity and the frequency of catastrophic weather events are increasing, affecting local crop production in developing countries. The growth of businesses and populations has limited the impact of these natural disasters, potentially threatening human lives. Swiss Reinsurance Company Ltd (Swiss Re) predicts that worldwide economic output could decrease by 11–14%, or $23 trillion annually, due to climate change by 2050. Some developing countries may lose over 20% or 40% of their economic output, while wealthy nations like the United States may see a 7% decrease. High-income, high-emitting countries have benefited from global warming, while low-income, low-emitting countries have been disproportionately affected [59]. Figure 5 shows Annual economic losses caused by weather- and climate-related extreme events in the EU Member States [60].

Fig. 5

Annual economic losses caused by climate-related events in the EU Member States

China experienced over $42 billion in direct economic losses in the first nine months of 2023 due to natural disasters. Africa experienced $43 billion in losses from 1970–2021, with droughts accounting for 95% of deaths. Europe reported $562 billion in losses, with 8% of global disaster deaths occurring in Europe. South America experienced $115.2 billion, while North America, Central America, and the Caribbean experienced $2 trillion. The US National Climate Assessment found that extreme weather events cost the country $1 billion every three weeks and averaged $150 billion in damages between 2018–2022 [61].

The general public’s concerns about environmental issues are exacerbated by a lack of environmental education, outdated consumer behavior, lack of incentives, legislation, and government commitment to climate change, with a potential 2 to 3% mercury rise and drastic rainfall shift by 2050 [62].

Pandemics and epidemics

The relationship between diseases and climate change has long been a subject of interest for researchers. Temperature fluctuations caused by climate change can create more favorable environments for the proliferation of organisms in food and water sources, as well as shorten the incubation period of pathogens, thereby promoting the spread of vectors and diseases. Certain temperature ranges that facilitate the transmission of specific infections can accelerate the development of potential epidemics [63].

When studying historical epidemics, researchers are increasingly focusing on landscape ecology, which encompasses environmental and socio-demographic factors. Climate, as a key environmental component, plays a significant role in shaping human ecosystems, while economics and population are commonly cited social-demographic factors [64]. Climate change acts as a significant external influence on the natural system, impacting environmental science and the development of epidemics. Within the epidemiological triplet model, climate change serves as one of the primary environmental factors that facilitates the spread of diseases. It creates a hospitable environment for disease agents such as bacteria, viruses, or secondary vectors, and also plays a fundamental role in socioeconomic variations that are closely tied to public health [65].

According to the World Bank, the consequences of climate change are projected to lead to an additional 5 million deaths, primarily resulting from starvation, malaria, and diarrheal diseases. Furthermore, between 2030 and 2050, over 100 million more people are expected to be pushed into extreme poverty due to these impacts [66].

The southwestern United States is known to be a region where the fungal disease coccidioidomycosis, or Valley fever, is prevalent. The size of the affected area and the frequency of Valley fever cases are influenced by temperature and precipitation patterns in this area. Climate models predict temperature increases and altered precipitation patterns for the western United States, which could potentially impact the disease pattern. To assess the potential geographic range of Valley fever endemicity, researchers used a climate niche model based on data on current climatic conditions and disease incidence [67].

In northwest Europe, climate change is contributing to the spread of tick-borne viruses such as louping-ill virus, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, and tick-borne encephalitis virus, as well as vector-borne viruses like Japanese encephalitis virus, West Nile virus, and Rift Valley fever virus. These spread dynamics are influenced by fluctuations in temperature, precipitation, host abundances, land use, and other factors [68].

The warm, sandy soil conditions with moisture create an ideal environment for the hatching, growth, and reproduction of desert locust eggs. Normally, these species would not survive in the arid environment of the region. However, in October 2018, a tropical storm named Luban followed, providing the initial epidemic of desert locusts a lifeline [69].

Global response to climate change

Addressing health issues arising from socioeconomic and ecological factors necessitates coordinated international strategies, supported by localized policies and actions [70]. The world has established a complex global health system as a defense against both expected and unexpected infectious disease threats. This system comprises formal and informal networks of organizations that collaborate with multiple stakeholders, each with their own objectives, methods, and levels of accountability. These networks operate at various regional scales, including local, national, regional, and global, and encompass the public, for-profit, and nonprofit sectors.

The global health system has made significant contributions in safeguarding and advancing human health. However, persistent, emerging, and resurging infectious disease risks continue to exist worldwide. These risks vary in terms of their probability and intensity. Moreover, they have diverse impacts on morbidity and mortality, as well as far-reaching social and economic consequences.

Alternate solutions to combat infectious disease threats vary in their effectiveness and applicability. Measures such as ensuring access to clean water, implementing regulations, and developing biomedical defenses can play a role in mitigating these threats. However, the occurrence of epidemics like Ebola, Zika, dengue, Middle East respiratory syndrome, severe acute respiratory syndrome, and influenza, as well as the growing concern of antimicrobial resistance, have raised questions about the effectiveness of the current international development system in providing adequate protection against evolving infectious disease threats [59].

Factors such as urban development, globalization, environmental degradation, civil unrest, and changing patterns of bacterial transmission between human and animal populations contribute to these concerns. Additionally, rapid demographic changes in regions with insufficient healthcare infrastructure pose further challenges in effectively responding to infectious disease threats. It is important to address these factors and adapt strategies within the global health system to effectively tackle the evolving array of infectious diseases [56].

In addition to naturally occurring outbreaks, there is a potential risk of infectious disease outbreaks stemming from deliberate biological attacks or laboratory accidents. To address these emerging global challenges related to infectious diseases and their associated social and economic issues, there is a proposal for the establishment of an interdisciplinary Global Technical Council on Infectious Disease Threats. This council aims to enhance global health systems by promoting collaboration and coordination among various organizations, including the WHO, Gavi, CEPI, and CDC, pharmaceutical manufacturers, and others. A worldwide agreement on emissions reduction has been sought through several international debates known as “Conferences of the Parties”, or COPs, since the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was initially created in 1992 (Table 2) [71].

Table 2 Important events in international climate change negotiations

The Global Technical Council would focus on bridging knowledge gaps in areas such as infectious disease surveillance, funding models, supply chain logistics, and the socioeconomic impacts of potential threats. Through enhanced cooperation and coordination, the council would strengthen the global health system’s capacity to respond effectively to infectious disease threats. By addressing these areas and promoting interdisciplinary collaboration, the council can help improve the understanding and management of infectious diseases, ultimately contributing to global health security.

Globalization and environmental change, socio-demographic change, and the capacity of the health system are three interconnected forces that play a significant role in the emergence of novel situations related to vector-borne diseases. Zoonotic infectious diseases have been a significant concern for humans since the domestication of animals began approximately 10,000 years ago. Infectious diseases, including zoonosis, continue to be a major cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide, with zoonotic diseases accounting for approximately 75% of newly emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) [72].

The occurrence of emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases is driven by a combination of environmental factors, such as climate change, ecosystem modifications, and changes in human and animal population dynamics, as well as genetic and biological factors. These genetic and biological factors include microbial adaptations to macro- and micro-environmental changes and alterations in host susceptibility to infections. Understanding and addressing these complex interactions are crucial for effectively managing and preventing the spread of emerging infectious diseases [73].

The increasing frequency of emerging pandemics poses a significant threat to global health and economic progress. Global measures for pandemic prevention can be categorized into two main approaches: mitigation and adaptation aimed at reducing the underlying causes of pandemics. Our economic research suggests that urgent action is needed to develop a coordinated global adaptive policy within the next 27 years, considering the geopolitical challenges associated with pandemic management.

Furthermore, our research indicates that implementing mitigation policies, which aim to reduce the likelihood of future disease outbreaks, is more cost-effective. If these policies are implemented today, they could save between $344.0 billion and $360.8 billion over the next 100 years [74]. These findings underscore the importance of taking proactive measures to prevent and mitigate the impact of pandemics. Implementing coordinated global policies can not only safeguard public health, but also yield significant economic benefits in the long run.

To preserve public health, two major measures are essential: adaptation and secondary prevention, which involve anticipating and minimizing hazards, and mitigation, which involves significant reductions in carbon emissions (or public health preparedness). The likelihood of contracting a disease is influenced by factors such as the availability of health services, social and environmental conditions, and other region-specific factors.

However, certain diseases are more susceptible to changes in climate and weather than others. It is reasonable to anticipate that these diseases will respond to long-term climate change and more frequent extreme weather events. For example, the global dengue fatality rate is increasing, particularly in regions such as the Asia–Pacific, Latin America, and the Caribbean, where the disease is prevalent [75]. Factors such as trade, urbanization, global and local mobility, and climate fluctuations can contribute to dengue mortality. While it is challenging to directly attribute rising dengue mortality to climate change alone, it is plausible that the increased spread of the disease plays a significant role in the higher risk of mortality [75].

Community engagement amid climate change crises

According to Xie et al. [76], for the establishment of low carbon societies (LCSs), restrained carbon emission is needed which may be acquired through community engagement, because communities are the starting points of such emission. Cunha et al. [77] additionally, according to the Paris treaty and SDGs, communities are significant in the emission reduction of GHGs. In that agreement they emphasized to involve public and civil societies and multidisciplinary collaboration to achieve zero GHG emission. Glasgow climate pact-COP26 furthered the target of limiting the rise of global temperature < 2 °C. To achieve this aim, the cheapest mean with maximum impact includes the behavioral adaptation and civic engagement (CE), because both have crucial role to play in lowering GHG productions and establishing the low carbon communities (LCCs).

The LCCs are those communities which are furnished with an eco-friendly environment, low GHG and carbon emissions, climate favorable construction setup, good lifestyle, and effective resource management protocols [76, 78]. Hence, the LCCs are the model communities to reduce GHGs according to the UN-SDG 13 guidelines. This model has already been commenced in different regions of the globe, e.g., China, that has grabbed the global attention in this regard.

Though One Health approach is progressively expanding across the globe, this approach is yet to be translated into action worldwide, which may be a concern for future epidemics or pandemics. In this regard, realistic and holistic agendas are required for the implementation of such approach, plans and statutes with the involvement of the communities. Rural communities are more vulnerable to the impact of climate change in relation to human–environmental–animal health. Educated community representatives are vital and should be informed regarding the implementation of such policies and practices.

Challenges

Carbon emissions and climate variability are significant global challenges that have profound impacts on human well-being and economic prosperity. While there is potential for coordinated policies to address both issues, countries often have diverse short-term priorities in managing air pollutants and climate change. Despite sharing many atmospheric characteristics, emission sources, and mitigation techniques, atmospheric aerosols, and greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) are often treated as separate problems in scientific and policy domains.

There is a perception that reducing ambient aerosols may not directly address environmental concerns and may result in trade-offs in governmental decision-making. However, it is important to recognize the interconnectedness of air pollution and climate change. They share common primary causes, such as GHGs, and mitigation strategies, including the implementation of green infrastructures. Therefore, effective solutions for combating both air pollution and climate change require careful regulation, legislation, and presentation. It will also necessitate cooperation and negotiation between different stakeholders.

Urgent global action is required to address the interrelationships between air pollution and climate change. It is crucial to consider the links between these issues and develop integrated strategies that account for their shared causes and mitigation approaches [79].

The One Health approach is crucial for effectively mitigating, controlling, and preventing vector-borne parasitic diseases, which remain a significant concern. However, there are other arthropod-borne diseases that often receive more attention compared to certain vector-borne illnesses, such as tick-borne zoonoses. Diseases like leishmaniasis, dengue fever, and malaria may be relatively unknown to communities and can go undetected by healthcare professionals [73].

Climate variability, encompassing changes in temperature, rainfall patterns, and precipitation, is intensifying and has substantial implications for water resources, stagnant water-related diseases, and access to clean water. Weather variations directly influence the causes and transmission pathways of water-related infectious diseases such as malaria, dengue fever, and Chikungunya. The risks associated with waterborne diseases like typhoid and cholera are also increasing, mirroring the trends of rising temperatures impacting various health conditions [80].

The hospital has the potential to play a significant role in mitigating the health risks associated with climate change and implementing adaptation strategies [81]. There are several approaches that can be taken, including “greening” healthcare facilities, participating in national health impact assessments, and facilitating transdisciplinary coordination in areas such as renewable energy, infrastructure, and urban design. It is crucial for representatives from the healthcare system to be present in official national missions and international legislative events that address the latest developments and concerns related to climate change [81]. For instance, representatives can actively engage in annual conferences held under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.

There is a severe lack of accurate and georeferenced data at a fine scale regarding population health, environmental conditions, and the multitude of variables that influence vulnerability [82]. For instance, there is insufficient information available on the incidence or prevalence of most infectious diseases, waterborne illnesses, and different types of malnutrition at the subnational level. Furthermore, the scarcity of detailed population data hinders our understanding of crucial susceptibility factors such as resource availability, socioeconomic position, infrastructure quality, individual behavior, and governmental influences [82].

Future directions

One Health initiatives have demonstrated clear superiority over traditional public and animal health strategies in various areas such as climate change mitigation and adaptation, antibacterial sensitivity testing, and surveillance of non-communicable illnesses [83]. However, a significant challenge lies in the lack of multisectoral cooperation, particularly between the veterinary and healthcare communities. The existing curriculum overload and limited time for integrated courses are often cited as reasons for this, despite evidence showing that overspecialization carries higher costs and hampers interaction between sectors. To address this, immediate integration of One Health into medical and veterinary curricula is necessary [83].

Recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) are considered viable adaptation strategies to climate change due to their controlled indoor environment. These systems are minimally affected by climate change-related phenomena such as altered rainfall patterns, floods, droughts, global warming, cyclones, salinity fluctuations, ocean acidification, and sea-level rise. However, climate change does have a significant impact on rainfall variability and intensity, directly influencing the frequency of droughts and floods. If global temperatures rise by 2 °C instead of 1.5 °C, it is projected that over 25% of the planet will experience severe drought by 2050. This trend has already been observed in various regions, including Africa, where a declining trend in annual rainfall has been observed [84].

Climate change is known to be influenced by the methane emissions resulting from ruminant animal production. However, a comprehensive examination of this issue reveals that the expanding animal production in the developing world has played a significant role in lifting millions of small landowners out of poverty. Nonetheless, the consequences of global warming and increased droughts can lead to situations where cattle herders are forced to migrate into areas already occupied by others, exacerbating societal challenges [6].

Water, sanitation, and hygiene plays a crucial role in both the One Health approach and public health, as it addresses the maintenance of human and animal excretions. The coordination of managing these excretions is essential, as they can contribute to environmental contamination, such as soil and water pollution, as well as the spread of antibiotic resistance. The increased runoff caused by zoonotic pathogen-containing human and animal feces, resulting from practices like open defecation or the use of manure-fertilized fields, can contaminate surface and drinking water sources. This issue is exacerbated by more frequent high precipitation events due to climate change. Consequently, there is an elevated risk of disease outbreaks [85].

Conclusion

This essay has examined several mechanisms through which climate change affects the existence. While the impact of climate change on the prevalence of animal diseases has received limited research attention, it is important to recognize the complex connections between diseases and climate change, acknowledging that our understanding may be incomplete. Additionally, it is crucial to consider that climate effects often interact with one another in various ways, despite discussing them individually. Climate change stands as a paramount global issue. The continuous emission of CO₂, along with rising temperatures, precipitation, and humidity, has led to a growing spread of infectious diseases worldwide. The increasing temperatures have contributed to rising sea levels, resulting in devastating floods, as well as droughts in numerous regions, leading to the loss of habitable areas. The primary challenges posed by climate change are the rapid temperature rise and the emission of CO₂, which drive significant environmental changes. The application of transdisciplinary approaches and society-based situational problem-solving is suitable for addressing the concept of One Health to cope climate change (Table 3).

Table 3 Emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases, etiological agents, and associated climatic factors in different regions of the world

Recommendations

• Climate change and consequent global threats, e.g., health, economic, energy, etc., need to be predicted for appropriate and sustainable solutions.

• A holistic, multidisciplinary preventive approach should be acquired in a rational manner.

• The One Health concept identifies the interconnectedness among human, animal and associated environment is imperative, should be considered as a significant preventive and control strategy. This would be helpful to restrain the impact of climate change on zoonosis, epidemics, pandemics, agriculture food safety and security.

• Efforts for the development of LCCs with community engagement should be a part of the policies. Global stakeholders should affirm the implementation of such policies worldwide, particularly in LMICs.

• In future, according to the guidelines of parties, e.g., UNFCCC global policy prioritization and orientation should be adopted, which would be beneficial for humans, animals and shared environmental health.