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Table 2 Ecotoxicity to algae and selected physicochemical properties of nontoxic ion-releasing nano- and microparticles available in powder form (for material details, see Additional file 1: Table S3 and Table S5)

From: Prioritising nano- and microparticles: identification of physicochemical properties relevant for toxicity to Raphidocelis subcapitata and Daphnia magna

Material

Morphology

Size [nm]

Size length [µm]

Reactivity

Description of agglomeration

EC50 [mg/L]

Materials with toxic effects to R. subcapitata

 Non-doped TiO2

Spheres

19

No

Algae densely covered by particles

0.38 [0.33–0.43]

 Eu-doped TiO2

Spheres

10

No

Algae densely covered by particles

0.91 [0.75–1.10]

 TiO2 cubes

Cubes

16

Not determined

Loose agglomerates of large particles with attached and entrapped algae

0.92 [0.55–1.51]

 TiO2_fibre IG

Fibre

61

1.4

No

Small and large, mainly loose agglomerates with entrapped and attached algae

1.3 [n.d.]

 Y2O3

Spheres

32

 

No

Particles attached to algae; no dense coverage; additionally, large agglomerates of algae and particles

2.6 [2.2–3.1]

 Fe-doped TiO2

Spheres

23

 

No

Algae densely covered by particles

3.6 [2.6–4.8]

 TiO2_fibre RG

Fibre

65

1.3

No

Small and large, mainly loose agglomerates with entrapped and attached algae

4.2 [0.033–668]

 TiO2 NM-105

Spheres

21

 

No

Algae densely covered by particles

4.7 [3.5–5.5]

 CeO2 NM-212

Spheres

30

No

Algae densely covered by particles

5.6 [3.0–10.4]

 sSiC

Spheres

75

Yes

Small particles attached to some algae (half of the cell covered); algae attached to agglomerates exceeding size of algae; potentially entrapment of algae

7.8 [4.4–13.8]

 CeO2 NM-211

Spheres

10

No

Algae densely covered by particles

8.5 [7.7–9.3]

Materials with low toxicity to R. subcapitata

 CeO2 NM-213

Spheres

33

No

Minor attachment of particles to algae; no dense coverage

43.8 [n.d.]

 TiO2 NM-104

Spheres

30

No

Minor attachment of particles to algae; no dense coverage

60.1 [13.9–234.2]

 SiC_thin

Fibres

190

11.7

Not determined

Individual fibres; small, loose agglomerates of the fibres with entrapped and attached algae

99.9 [29.1–315.6]

 SiC whisker

Whisker

314

3.7

Not determined

Individual whiskers and loose agglomerates with some attached and entrapped algae

Small toxicity (–30% effect at 100 mg/L)

Materials without toxicity to R. subcapitata

 INT718

Spheres

10.8 *103

No

Individual particles or agglomerates comprising a few particles; only some algae are attached on the surface of the particles or agglomerates

No toxicity

 IN_Y2O3

Platelet

26.1 *103

Thickness: 3.6

No

No toxicity

 Ti64

Platelet

17.7 *103

No

No toxicity

 Ti64_SiC

Spheres

37.9 *103

Thickness: 11.0

No

No toxicity

  1. n.d. not determinable due to mathematical reasons or inappropriate data