Table 1 Indicators used in this study

Ecosystem types

Forest, shrubland, grassland, farmland, desert, artificial ecosystem, coastal ecosystem

Ecosystem type classification in 2010, Chinese Academy of Science

Resource and Environment Science and Data Center

http://www.resdc.cn/data.aspx?DATAID=105

Ecological issues

Ecological disaster, reduced resource-carrying capacity, desertification, environmental pollution, soil salination, soil erosion, freeze–thaw erosion, invasive species, and urban expansion

Ministry of Ecology and Environment and Chinese Academy of Science, 2015

China Ecosystem Assessment and Ecological Security Database

http://www.ecosystem.csdb.cn/ecoass/ecoassess_list.jsp?func=wt

Ecosystem functions

Water conservation, sand stabilization, soil and water conservation, biodiversity protection, hydrological regulation, carbon sequestration

Ministry of Ecology and Environment and Chinese Academy of Science, 2015

Resource and Environment Science and Data Center and China Ecosystem Assessment and Ecological Security Database

http://www.ecosystem.csdb.cn/ecogj/tpcclasses_list.jsp?func=395F1E2FD6F0674C50076B29E1A108AB

http://www.mee.gov.cn/gkml/hbb/bgg/201511/W020151126550511267548.pdf

Ecoregions

50 ecoregions based on the ecosystem characteristics, ecosystem services and ecological vulnerabilities

Ecoregion Plan in China

China Ecosystem Assessment and Ecological Security Database

http://www.ecosystem.csdb.cn/ecoass/ecoplanning.jsp

Study objectives

Vegetation dynamics induced by restoration activities; carbon sequestrated by vegetation and soil, the influence on phosphorous and nitrogen cycles; soil chemical and physical properties; soil microbials; ecosystem services; ecological restoration management; ecosystem function and structure, and water resource

Based on the results of literature review in this study, as well as Gurra et al. 2020 [13]

–

–

Study methods

Literature review, remote sensing, field sampling, ground-based monitoring, atmospheric and land modeling, and policy analysis

Gurra et al., 2020; Wu et al. 2020 [13, 14]

–

–

Restorative strategies

Natural regeneration, direct seeding, bioremediation, revegetation, afforestation, rehabilitation, habitat conservation, threat mitigation (e.g., pollutant removal and grazing exclusion), and wetland creation

Based on the results of literature review, as well as the Gurra et al. 2020 [13]

–

–

Reference ecosystem

presence or absence

Gurra et al. 2020 [13]

–

–