From: Microbially induced deterioration of architectural heritages: routes and mechanisms involved
S.No. | Monuments and artworks | Examples | City/Country | Microbe(s)involved in deterioration | Mechanism of deterioration | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Catacombs | Abbatija tad-Dejr | Rabat, Malta | Cyanobacteria and Microalgae | Biofilm formation and filament growth inside pores and cracks resulting in biophysical damage. | [12] |
Roman Catacomb | Italy | Actinobacteria and Fungi | Biofilm formation | [41] | ||
St. Paul’s Catacombs | Rabat, Malta | Fischerella, Leptolyngbya, Actinobacteria and Coccus | Biofilm formation as a result of artificial light source | [12] | ||
Palaeo-Christian Catacombs | Rabat, Malta | Cyanobacteria | Biofilm formation | [12] | ||
2 | Cathedral | Cathedral of Camerino | Macerata, Italy | Micrococcus sp., Alcaligenes sp. and Flavobacterium | Carbonate dissolution and color alteration | [54] |
Cathedral of Salamanca and Toledo | Salamanca and Toledo in Spain | Chlorophyta, Cyanobacteria and Fungi | Biofilm formation | [8] | ||
Cathedral of Salamanca | Salamanca, Spain | Penicillium, Fusarium Cladosporium, Phoma, and Trichoderma | Acid secretion and bioweathering | [55] | ||
Cathedral of Toledo | Toledo, Spain | Stichococcus bacillaris | Biofilms and patina of different colors | [4] | ||
Lund Cathedral | Lund, Sweden | Microcoleus vaginatus and Klebsormidium flaccidum | Biofilm formation | |||
Milan Cathedral | Milan, Italy | Cladosporium sp. | Damage to monument and previously applied protective acrylic resin | [56] | ||
3 | Caves | The Painted Cave of Lascaux | France | Fusarium solani | Human activity resulted in alteration in cave environment and introduction of fungi | [57] |
4 | Chapel | Chapel of Castle Herberstein | Styria, Austria | Acremonium, Engyodontium, Cladosporium, Blastobotrys, Verticillium, Mortierella, Aspergillus and Penicillium | Accumulation of moisture and growth of fungi | [58] |
Chapel of Sistine, Italy | Sistine, Italy | Bracteacoccus minor | Biofilm and green patina formation | [59] | ||
Chapel of St. Virgil | Vienna, Austria | Halococcus and Halobacterium. | Salt efflorescences | [9] | ||
5 | Church | Carrascosa del Campo Church | Cuenca, Spain | Algae, Heterotrophic Bacteria and | Organic acid secretion, and | [60]; |
Fungi (Penicillium and Fusarium) and Mosses | decomposition and humification of stones | [61] | ||||
Vilar de Frades church | Barcelos, Portugal | Rubrobacter | Biofilm formation, hyphae penetration in the painted layers resulting into pitting, detachment, cracking and loss of the paint | |||
St Maria church | Alcala de Henares, Spain | Bacillus, Micrococcus and Thiobacillus, yeast and microalgae of the Apatococcus | Crust formation | [11] | ||
Magistral church | Alcala de Henares, Spain | Algae and bacteria | Biofilm formation | [11] | ||
Parish Church of St. Georgen | Styria, Austria | Acremonium, Engyodontium, Cladosporium, Blastobotrys, Verticillium Mortierella, Aspergillus and Penicillium | Prolonged dampness, salt and fungal growth | [58] | ||
6 | Fountains | Bibatauín Fountain | Granada, Spain | Microalgae | Biofilm formation | [17] |
Fountain of Patio de la Lindaraja | Granada, Spain | Cyanobacteria, Chlorophyta, Bacillariophyta, Fungi and Diatoms (Navicula spp) | Green patina and Biofilm | [31] | ||
Fountain of Patio de la Sultana | Granada, Spain | Cyanobacteria, Chlorophyta, Bacillariophyta, Fungi and Diatoms (Navicula spp) | Various colored patina and Biofilm | [17] | ||
Fountains of the Alhambra | Granada, Spain | Algae | Excessive mineralization leading to change in texture and composition | [64] | ||
The Haji Mehmet Fountain at Rustempasa Bazaar, Erzurum, Turkey | Erzurum, Turkey | Bacteria and fungi | Interaction of microorganism with air pollutants like SO2, NO2 etc. and biofilm formation on stone surface | [5] | ||
Lions Fountain at the Alhambra Palace | Granada, Spain | Protebacteria, Chlamydiae and Verrucomicrobia | Biofouling and Biocorrosion | [16] | ||
Robba’s fountain statues | Ljubljana, Slovenia | Endolithic green algae and cyanobacteria | Black crust formation | [15] | ||
Tacca’s Fountains | Florence, Italy | Cyanobacteria, Chlorophyta, Bacillariophyta, Fungi and Diatoms (Navicula spp) | Green and brown biofilm | [17] | ||
7 | Monastery | Santa Clara-a-Velha Monastery | Coimbra, Portugal | Chlorella | Biofilm formation | [65] |
8 | Mosque | The Lalapasa Mosque, The Erzurum Castle Mosque, The Double Minarets- Madrasah, The Great Mosque | Erzurum, Turkey | Bacteria and fungi | Interaction of microorganism with air pollutants like SO2, NO2 etc. and biofilm formation ob stone surface | [5] |
9 | Palace | Ajuda National Palace | Lisbon, Portugal | Chroococcidiopsis | Biofilm formation | [65] |
10 | Pyramids | Caestius Pyramid | Rome, Italy | Cyanobacteria: Myxosarcina concinna, Calothrys marchica var. crassa, Phormidium foveolarum, Synechococcus sp.; Green Algae: Chlorocuccum sp.; Fungi: Cladosporium cladosporioides and Alternaria alternata and Lichens | Pitting | [14] |
11 | Statues | Baboli Garden Statues | Florence, Italy | Chroococcidiopsis, Leptolyngbya, Pleurocapsa, Coccomyxa and Apatococcus | Polysaccharides secretion and biofilm formation | [32] |
Terracotta statue from the Pardon Gate | Cathedral of Seville, Seville, Spain | Phormidium sp. and Klebsormidium flaccidum | Green and black sulfated-crust and Biofilm formation | [17] | ||
13 | Tombs | Etruscan Mercareccia Tomb | Italy | Mixed population of bacteria and fungi | Stone carbonate solubilization | [13] |
Servilia and Postumio Tombs in the Roman Necropolis of Carmona, Spain | Seville, Spain | Rubrobacter | Hyphae penetration in the painted layers resulting into pitting, detachment, cracking and loss of the paint | [63] | ||
14 | Towers | Orologio Tower | Martano, Italy | Chlorella | Biofilm formation | [65] |
Pisa Tower, Italy | Pisa, Italy | Sporotrichum | Oxalate formation | [66] | ||
15 | Walls | Lungotevere walls | Rome, Italy | Chroococcus lithophiles | Biodeterioration | [67] |